U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM LIBRARY OF Henry Guernsey Hubbard AND Eugene Amandus Schwarz DONATED IN 1902 ACCESSION NO.) ..'... 1.. .4... fS"..!). - ■• - ■ - t-u Fyonlis/'iire.] THK MKTAMORniOSE.S nK TlIK STAC. HKKll-E. 6L Transformations THE (OR METAMORPHOSES) INSECTS^ (Jnsecta, Myriapoda, Arachnida, and Crustacea.) UEING AN ADAPTATION, FOK ENGLISH REAnERS, OF M. 6mILE DLANCHAKD's " METAMORPHOSES, JICEURS ET INSTINCTS DES INSECTS ;" AND A COMPILATION FROM THE WOUKS OF NEWPORT, CHARLES DARWIN, SPENCE BATE, FRITZ MULLER, PACKARD, LUBROCK, STAINTON, AND OTHERS. ^ P. MARTIN DUNCAN, F.R.S., Professor of Gcolo'^y in 7\tiii^\^ Co/!cl;v, Loiuioti. AU6 2 5 19 CASS ELL, PETTHR & GALPIN LONDON. PARIS ^ NEW YORK. 31 Dctiicatc tl)i;s (Uolimu TO THE MEMORY OF AN AFFECTIONATE WIFE, To whose iutellif;cnt assisfaticc 7mich of its success has been cine. P. MARTIN DUNCAN. **: TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER L PACE TnK Insect World > . . . . i CHAPTER n. Structures Imi'MCated in Metamorphosis 9 CHAPTER in. Metamorphoses of the Nervous, Digestive, and Respiratory Systems, AND THE Nature of Metamorphosis 31 CHAPTER IV. The Metamorphoses of the Lepidoptera 08 CHAPTER V. The Metamorphoses of the Lepidopi'era — Continttcd , , » • 93 CHAPTER VI. The Metamorphoses of the IIymenopteka ...*,. 162 CHAPTER VII. The METAwtoRPHOSES of the Cot.eoptera 264 CHAPTER VIII. The Metamorphoses of the Orthoptera . 2iZ2> CHAPTER IX. The Metamorphoses of the Thysanoptera ....... 354 CHAPTER X. The Metamorphoses of the Neuroptera 347 ciiapti:r XI. I'HE MKTA.NfDRPlKJSES OF THE HkM 1 1- TKRA 370 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER XII. FACE The Metamoiiphoses of the Aphaniptera and Strepsiptera . . . 3S4 CHAPTER XIII. The Metamorphoses of the Diptera 390 CHAPTER XIV. The Anoplura and Thysvnura c . . . 40S CHAPTER XV. The Myriapoda 4" CHAPTER XVI. The Metamorphoses of the Arachnida 4-^6 CHAPTER XVII. The Metamorphoses of the Crustacea 448 I TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FULL-PAGE PLATES. The ^^etamorphoses of the Stag Beetle - . . . . Frontispiece. The Metamorphoses of /"(i-////!) wrt("/ia^« - . . . . To face Page 78 The Metamoiphoses of Vanessa lo - - - - - - ,, ,,82 The IVretamorphoses of the Marbled White (^r^'^^(z/rt/'/^£a) - - ,, ,,84 The Metamorphoses of A'i'/rt rt'/Z/i'rw/.f ------ ,, ,,96 The Metamorphoses of Zj/^7?«(j!/7;/»t'«(///Az', the " Six Spot Burnet" ,, ,, 98 The Metamorphoses of the ^///«x «///it7;'/5/(S .... ^^ ,, lOo The Metamorphoses of ^//rf«« /««« . - - . - - ,, ,,112 The Metamorphoses of the Bonibyx processioiiea and of Calosoma sycophaiita ......... ^^ ,,114 The Metamorphoses of /'j'y(/^> 130 (joWs oi Cynips tenninalis - - - - - - - - ,, ,,180 ChrysididcB -.---....-- ,, ,, 194 'Y\\t.'^t.'i^. oi Formica rufa -.-.-.-- ,, ,, 200 The Metamorphoses of ^•t;//(Z /?(?z'//;-<7«j - - - - - ,, ,,218 Vespa sylvestris and Nest - - - - - - - - ,, ,, 234 Pohstes gallica and Nests - - - - - - - - ,, ,, 236 Polybia palmarum and Nests - - - - - - - ,, ,, 238 Tatua niorio oxKk'iiQSt - - - - - - - - ,, ,, 240 Leaf-cutting Bees and Nests - - ,, ,, 248 A nf^ocopa papaveris and Nests - - - - - - - ,, ,, 250 The Metamorphoses of ^w/Zzij/z^t^nz /c7'j't';/rtAi .... >, ,, 252 Bombiis muscorum - - - - - - . - - ,, ,, 254 The Iciest of Afe/ipona scutei/aris • - - - - - ,, ,, 260 The Metamorphoses of the Cockchafer (i1/c'/(7/i3«^/ia z'«/o-(?;7j) . „ ,, 274 The Metamorphoses of Z?>'//j'r«j' Wfir^'/w^z/w . - - - ,, ,, 298 The ^leta.morphosis of Aca/i//iop/iorus serraticornis - - - ,, ,, 324 The Eggs and immature and Adult forms of /*//////«/« j-/ct//(>//«w - ,, „ 338 The Metamorphoses of the Great Green Grasshopper ... ,, >> 340 The Metamorphoses of the Mole Cricket (6';7/^/(?^« z/^/jrtr/j-) - ,, ,, 342 Tiie Metamorphoses of Locusts {^'f«m'a'/«w /tfr^^/7««/;i) - - - ,, ,, 344 The Metamorphoses of the May Flies ,, ,, 354 The Metamorphoses of the Dragon Fly (^V/i;«« ;wa> ,, 464 A VI TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. CHAPTER IL PAGE Caterpillar of ^///wjT //g'/^j-//'/ - . » . - lo Moth of Sphinx ligustri lo Larvoe of a Dipterous Insect u Chrysalis of ^^/«x //^«j/r/ - 12 h3.TV3L and Moth of A i/acus paz/ouia major - - - 13 Membranous Legs of Silkworm Caterpillar 14 Larva of Ca/osoma sycophanta • ---15 Beetle of Calosoma sycophanta (Magnified) 16 Larva of Silkworm with True and Membranous Legs - • - - - -18 Legless Larvae of the Bee ; Nymphs of Bee 19 Caterpillar of a "Looper" ------ 19 Chiysalides (Magnified) 21 Anatomy of the Mouth of Lociista viridissima 22 Mouth of Larva of 6/)^i«jr /?^/jM; Head of Moth (Magnified) - - - - 23 Head of a Hornet 24 Digestive Apparatus of Locusta viridissima - -26 Digestive Apparatus of Dytisctis jnarginalis 26 Digestive Apparatus of Caterpillar - - 29 Digestive Apparatus of the Moth (Silkworm) - -.--.. 29 CHAPTER II L Nervous System of the Larva of the Bee (Magnified) 32 Nervous System of the Full-grown Bee (Magnified) 34 Brain and Optic Nerves, &c.; of Larva of Water Beetle 36 Brain and Optic Nerves, &c., of Adult Water Beetle 36 Nervous System of Larva of Silkworm 38 Nervous System of Moth of Silkworm - - - 38 Sympathetic Nerve of Silkworm - - . - 40 Larva and Pupae of Vanessa iirticce ..----.-- 41 Metamorphoses of the Nervous System of Vanessa tirticce . . . . 42, 43, 44 A Trachea Magnified 46 Respiratory Organs of Larvae of Cloe biocitlata and Ephemera vulgata - - - 47 The Larva and Nymph of the Caddis Fly 48 The Larva and Nymph of the Gnat .---...-- 4^ The Respiratory Apparatus of the Bee (Magnified) ...... -2 Sections of the Larva, Pupa, and Moth of i/>/«'«;c //^^j'/'r/ 61 Moths with Incomplete Wings 65 CHAPTER IV. h Voxixon of \h& "^'xw^ ol Attaciis pavonia major ...... 69 Scales of Different Genera of Lepidoptera - 70 Ends of the Feet of Lepidoptera 71 Moth of i/J^/wjf //^//j/r/, and the Wings, Hook, and Catch 75 TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Vll PAGE Terminal Parts of Antennte 76 Membranous Feet of Caterpillars 7^ Caterpillar and Chrysalis of Fafilio machaon 7^ Caterpillars and Butterflies of Tlmla W. album 86 Metamorphoses of Pamphila aracynthns 88 Caterpillars suspending themselves 90, 9i CHAPTER V. Antennre of Moths 94 Larva of the Death's Head Moth 9^ Chrysalis of the Death's Head Moth 99 Caterpillar of CJuBrocampa nerii t02 Chrysalis of Cluzrocampa nerii - 103 Moth of Ch(zrocampa nerii '04 Death^s Head Moth 105 MothandLai-vaof ^//^ /^?'w/«<7//j - - - - 182 Ichneimions .... ...-.----190 Diplolepis and Chalcis 193 The Ashy Ant '98 The Red Ant '99 viii TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Larvae, Nymph, and Cocoon of Red Ant 202 Myrmecocystus JMexicanus 209 Mitt ilia Ew-opira - - - - - 216 Ammophila sabulosa --••--•-.... 219 PeloptEus spirifex ..---....... 220 Pelopa:us spirifex, Nest detached ---------- 222 Cerceris arenaria ..-.--...... 225 Phila7iihus apivorus --•-.-.-.-.. 226 Cemonus lugubris -228 Odynerus parietum, Metamoqjhoses --.--.... 230 Adult, Larva, and Pupa of Odynerus - - -231 Eumenes pomifir>-mis ---.---..... 232 Chalicodoma muraria 243 Chalicodoma muraria. Nest of----- ..... 245 Osmia aurulefita 246 Xylocopa violacea - - 250 Psithyrus vesfalis ---------.... 254 Apis mcllifica • 255 Under surface of Bee 256 Hind Legs of Bee 257 Head of Bee 25S Sting and Venom Glands of Bee 25S Honeycomb 259 CHAPTER VII. Metamorphoses of the Cetonia aurata 269 Melolontha fullo 275 Orydes tiasicornis 277 Ateuchus sacer 279 Necrophorus vespillo 284 Silpha qnadripiinctata 286 Staphylintis olens 288 Viviparous Staphylinida 290 Dermestes lardarius and Dermestes vulpin-ts 292 Hydrous piceus 295 Hydrous pians. Egg Cocoons of 296 Carabus auratus ------------- 300 Cicindella cavipestris 304 Tenebrio molitor 305 Meloe cicatricosus and Siiaris humeralis 507 Sitaris huvieralis -- 309 Lampyris splcndidula - - - - - - - - - - - -jio Alaus oculatus - - - - - - - - - - ■ - -311 Trichodes alvearius - - • - - - - - - - - -S'S Scaly t us destructor 315 Toniicus typographus 2lti^ Scolytus destnutor • • 316 TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. IX PAGE Rytichites Bacchus ^"oA. Apodenis coryli - - - . - . . -318 Beetles and Larvae of Larinus mcunlosiis - - - - - - . - 319 Calaiidra paltnanim • • - - - - . - . . . -321 Calandra oryztF, and Calandra granaria •-...... -322 Chalcophora Mariatia -----...... ^23 Metamoqjhoses of Chalcophora Mariana --...... •334 Metamorphoses of Oficideres vomicosus --...... ■jfi'i Crioceris merdigcra ------...... ^ao Litia popiili ---.-..-..... T^o Coccinella septempunctata • • - ... . . . . . -S^i CHAPTER VIII. Forficula auricularia ------...... o^e Blatta Amerkafta 337 Egg Capsules of Mantis religiosa 330 Empiisa pai4perata -----....... ^40 Metamorphoses of the Field Cricket 342 CHAPTER IX. The Incomplete Metamorphosis of Thrips cerealium - - .... 34c CHAPTER X. Termes lucifitgiim . •, -g A Female Tertnes 350 The Metamorphoses of Perla marginata • - - . . . . -352 Larva and Pupa of an Ephemera 254 Nymph and Adult of Libellula 357 The Metamorphoses of Myrmeleon formicariutn 358 The Metamorphoses of Palpares Ubelhdoides 360 Nemoptera coa and Ascalaphiis longicor7iis - - - - - - . - 361 The Metamorphoses of Panorpa communis i6'' The Metamorphoses of SevMis lutaria .364 The Metamorphoses of the Caddis Flies 366 Larva and Nymph of Caddis Flies ,5^ HydropsycJu atomaria ----.-...... ,53 CHAPTER XI. The Metamorphoses of Peniaioma grisea ,-2 Astemma aptcra ---... ^^^ The Metamorphoses of Peduvius personatus ----... -i-jt The NepidcE ,»_ Aprophora spumaiHa -•---•-..... ,-„ The Rose Aphis _Oq Coccus carti ---....... . -.181 Cochineal Insect (Magnified) .,§2 X TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. CHAPTER XII. PAGB The Metamorphoses of the Flea 385 Stylops aterrhnus 3S7 Female and Larva of Stylops ateriinus • - - . . . . . . 388 CHAPTER XIII. Metamorphoses of the Gnat 391 Cecidoinyia and Viviparous Larvae 394 Tahanus bovinus ^ . . . ^96 Stratiomys chamceleon 398 VoluccUa zonaria ............ ^qq Eristalis tcnax .------------ 401 Gymnosoma rotunda/a ........... 403 Meat Flies 404 Ticks 406 CHAPTERXIV. Philopterus selcifrons and Pedkidus capitis 409 LcpisiiuL and Podiira 410 CHAPTER XV. Jidus terrestris 412 Scolopcndra morsitans 414 Development of y^^/i^J 4^7 CHAPTER XVI. The Scorpion 428 Hydrachna geographica 438 Hydrackna globula 442 Itch Insect 445 Argyroneta aquatica 447 CHAPTER XVII. Carcimis nuenas — Zoea 45 3> 454 Young Lobsters 457 Nauplius of Prawn 45^ Zoea of Prawn - - • - 459 Older Zoija 460 Mysis Form of Prawn • • - 461 Palinurus — Zoea 462 Species of Praniza and Anceus 463 Daphnia pukx 2sA Cypris fusca 465 Metamorphosis of a Lenucan 468 Lepas anatifera ..------•-••- 47° A Sessile Barnacle 47' Larva of Scalpellutn vulgare, and Larva of second stage 475 PREFACE. This volume consists mainly of an adaptation of M. £mile Blanchard's popular work on the metamorphoses of insects for English readers. In order to complete the history of the evolution of some of the articulate animals which M. Emile Blanchard has not fully described I have selected much matter from the well- known writings of George Newport, Duges, Charles Darwin, Heroldt, Schiodte, Fritz Miiller, Packard, Sir John Lubbock, Stainton, and Spence Bate ; but at the same time I have eliminated large portions of M. Emile Blanchard's work, which, although very interesting, do not refer directly to the phenomena of metamorphosis. I have endeavoured to suppress all doubtful facts ; and I have introduced here and there some opinions upon the nature of metamorphosis and its relation to the evolution of the creatures subjected or not to it. It is only just that M. Emile Blanchard should be relieved from the authorship of such opinions. Students of \hQ Articulaia will, perhaps, be astonished at the amount of work there still remains to be done in the examination of the transformations of many important families of the Insccta, and I venture to express a hope that carcinologists will give me their kind consideration — owing to the great difficulty of the subject — when they read the chapter on the metamorphoses of the Crustacea, and especially that part which is an analysis of Charles Darwin's wonderful monograph. P. MARTIN DUNCAN. Transformations of Insects. CHAPTER I. THE INSECT WORLD. The beings which belong to the great zoological group of the Articidata are found in enormous numbers in nearly every part of the world. The articulate animals comprise those which the great Linnaeus called " insects " — that is to say, the true insects, the hundred-legs, the spiders, and the crabs. Insects existed in very remote geological ages, and their wings have been found beautifully preserved in the remains of those old forests and swamps which have been formed into coal. Thus early in the world's history the beetle droned at eventide, and the merry chirp of the grasshopper was added to the song of Nature. Moreover, the hundred-legs of the period enjoyed the quietude of the great tree stems, and many a spider spread its web on the ferns and the close underwood. Coal is dug up from depths of hundreds of fathoms, and is covered by sediments which are tlie remains of old continents, and sea bottoms, the thickness of which is a measure of the time they took to form ; yet so far back in the annals of Nature the tiny insects came from the ^gg, lived as gormandising grubs, changed into sleepy pupx, and burst forth into lively winged creatures. Ever since, and during all the successive changes of the world's surface, insect life has manifested itself, and now articulate animals are found everywhere. B 2 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. Insects fly, crawl, and hum in the forest, along the fields, and about the marsh; and they swim, fight, and devour in the tran- quil glassy pools hour after hour and without ceasing. They embody the very principles of vitality, activity, and destruction. Myriads dance in airy flight over the frozen sea, and alight on the ice-bound coasts, where life appears to be impossible, and wliere a few Esquimaux lead a desolate and adventurous existence. They tease the reindeer, and drive them to the region of bitter frost ; and they live upon the offal left by the hunters, or cast up by the tide. Many a wandering butterfly has been welcomed by the Alpine climber in his solitude, and vast columns of them have clothed the rigging and sails of ships far out at sea with their painted wings. In the tropics, Avhere Nature revels in an excess of gorgeous splendour, the beetles and the flies compete with the floral world in numbers and in magnificence of colouring. The fire-flies illuminate the shades in the short twilight, and move in graceful curves through the dense woods ; and until night sets in the insect war continues. In our temperate climates, where tlie sun is not so fierce and so constantly shining, the decorations of insects are not so intensely beautiful, but they are immensely appreciated ; and the study of the anatomical details of all the kinds, and the examination of their habits and peculiarities, afford endless delight. During one part of the year the activity displayed by the little world of insects is unequalled. The caterpillars, grubs, and larvae eat with an incomparable appetite ; they nibble and devour their food incessantly, and make haste to grow as fast as possible. They change their skins over and over again, and sleep for a while as nymphs, pupai, or chrysalides, and awake t9 a new life, which has but a slight resemblance to the old. The wing*ed insects pursue each other, and dance in great companies, urging their short love chase amidst the pendant boughs and the gayest flowers, and then seek restlessly and skilfully the proper places for their eggs. Such industrious flies as the bees appear to live in order to work, and are so preoccupied with their undertakings that they seem never to have a moment to lose. There they are, making THE INSECT WORLD. 3 holes in the soil or in old walls, and building cells, or rushing from flower to flower gathering honey, collecting pollen, and not in a temper to be disturbed at their business, for they are putting by for the rainy day, and thinking of the store they must lay up with their eggs. A caterpillar is in great distress, and is traversing the sunshine in the strong grip of a gaily-coloured Sphex, which is about to place it in the nest, where its young will make a meal of it some day or other; and an Ichneumon fly, with its slim waist and long, slender body, armed with a sharp ovipositor, is just about to attack another heavy feeder, and to lay an o.^'g beneath its skin. Well armed and cuirassed carnivorous beetles and dragon-flies are busy slaying and eating the quiet munchers of leaves and the suckers of flowers ; and the delicate water insects are revelling in a constant fight, or are gormandising on their weaker prey. Elsewhere there is a different scene of intense vitality. The blow-flies are hovering around, and are placing their eggs in the putrid dead body of a small animal, some beetles are burying portions of it, and soon a mass of maggots will revel in the rest. Most wonderful are the uses of insects. They fertilise the soil by scattering decomposing matters, and prevent them from vitiating the atmosphere. A plant grows luxuriantly and increases too rapidly ; the caterpillars arrest its growth and propagation ; the caterpillars after a while become too destructive, and the Ichneu- mons kill them by myriads. The vegetarian insects which lead a luxurious and quiet life tend to increase greatly in number, and yet the carnivorous kinds are ever at hand to keep this prolific race within bounds. Century after century this curious equilibrium is maintained in Nature, and although occasionally locusts increase to such an extent as to ruin great districts, still, as a rule, the interference of man produces the ravages of the flies that injure his crops, for he constantly disarranges the balance of insect power. The crab tribe represents the insects in the seas, along the coasts, and in the rivers, and its members lead all sorts of lives under very diverse circumstances. It would appear that Nature requires the multiplication of the Articulata to be carried to the greatest excess, and that they B 2 4 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. should often lead different lives during the successive stages of their growth and development ; that they should be able to live under most opposite conditions of existence, being clothed in most varied garb ; that they should undergo metamorphoses. Every civilised nation, during its early days, produced students of Nature who wondered at the metamorphoses of insects. They considered that there was a complete transformation of one being into another, and that the metamorphosis of the fable was repeated as a common condition in these lowly winged tribes. Scientific research and the results of the microscope proved, many years since, that this opinion was incorrect, and that the trans- formations were phases in the development or evolution of the animal. The butterfly — the metamorphoses of which are most striking to the young observer — could never have existed unless it had completed its regular course of development, separated by dis- tinct stages. The insect is born in an embryonic condition, that is, immature and imperfectly developed — born, as it were, too soon. The imperfectly developed insect is the caterpillar. The caterpillar receives in the e.g,% the gift of the principal vital organs which are to be traced in the chrysalis and butterfly, but they have to be modified and perfected, and others have to ap- pear at a more advanced stage of the development of the insect. During the early part of its existence the insect only requires an abundant supply of food, and grows daily in bulk, without there being any changes in its outlines and shape. Then, with increasing dimensions, come repeated skin sheddings and many internal alterations. It attains its greatest size, aftd then traces of new organs are to be discovered by the anatomist. Oftentimes old structures disappear. The caterpillar then ceases to eat, and appears to shorten and to contract ; the skin splits and falls off, and there remains an almost quiescent mass, the vitality of which is often doubtful in the eyes of the curious. It is an armoured being, some of whose outlines foreshadow a future condition ; it is a mould wherein the changes of the animal alchemy are proceeding slowly and surely ; it is the dross before the gold ; it is the chrysalis, out of which, in due time, flies the butterfly. 1 THE INSECT WORLD. 5 The beetles are born in a comparatively imperfect state, and no one could guess from their immature forms that they would eventually become what they do. In the first stage of their existence, after having escaped from the Q.g%, they are grubs or larvae, and they generally remain in this condition for a consider- able time before changing into the quiet and motionless nymph, pupa, or beetle chrysalis. But the life of the mature insect, which escapes fully and elaborately formed and decorated from the shroud of the nymph, is usually limited to a few days. The bees, wasps, and flies commence their existence as mag- gots or grubs, and have to submit to metamorphoses like those of the other insects. But the grasshoppers resemble their fully-developed parents from the first. They are only deficient in the wings, which of all organs are those the most indicative of perfection. The young grasshoppers have very much the shape of the old ones, and their habits and dispositions also. Old and young grass- hoppers, the first with and the others without wings, the adults and the larvse, live very much the same sort of life, but the young ones change their skins several times during their growth. After the last moulting but one there are traces of wings which swathe the body, and the insect is then said to be a nymph ; but it is not like the quiet chrysalis of the butterfly or the pupa of the beetle, for it is as active as the perfect adult into which it speedily grows. Some insects do not undergo any metamorphosis, and in this they are imitated by the hundred-legs, and the greater part, but not all, of the spiders. In the sea many of the Crustacea present transformations during their growth and adolescence quite as wonderful and interesting as those just noticed amongst the terrestrial insects. In most of the species of Crustacea successive changes of shape and of habits precede the perfection of the adult form. The heavy, slow-moving crab that crawls sideways over the rocks was once a sprightly, free-swimming larva, and so were all the shrimps ; moreover, there are long-legged, active things, swimming in every sea, which are larva; that have a most extraordinary fate. They are destined to be fixed by their heads to rocks, ships, and even 6 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. to sharks and whales, and to turn into something much more dissimilar than butterflies are to caterpillars — into barnacles. Instead of their development progressing during the metamor- phosis it retrogrades, and the adult creature is less perfect than the young. Swammerdam, the great Dutch naturalist of the 17th century, laboured to prove that the structural elements of the perfect insect were already within the caterpillar or larva, and he impressed upon his contemporaries and upon many of his successors that all the parts of the adult were in the creature as it escaped from the egg, but on a small scale. He considered that the glories of the fully- developed insect were masked in the tiny grub, and hence the name of larva. But careful anatomical researches and dissections, with the aid of the microscope, gradually disproved this idea of Swammerdam's, and by the beginning of this century the opinions of naturalists concerning the nature of the metamor- phoses of the Artiadata were much nearer the truth. It had become known that some important organs which existed at one period of insect life were not to be found at others, and that new combinations of structures having peculiar functions and uses appeared during growth. Every one knows that a young chicken differs in shape from one just hatched. Now, the anatomists of the early part of this century laboured at the investigation of the alterations in the arrangement of the internal parts and organs which took place during the &^GS. {Aclialiiwplcra.) These Lcpidoptcra are celebrated for the elegance of their shape and brilliant colour. The wings of the butterflies, or diurnal flyers, are usually very large, and very varied in their I 234 TERMINAL PARTS OF THE ANTENN.'E IN DIFFERENT GENERA. (Magnified.) I. Papilio machaon. 2. Argynnis paphia. 3. Thecla W. album. 4. Hesperia sylvanus. outlines. Some have them gracefully rounded off, and others have them prolonged backwards symmetrically. When these insects are at rest, their wings are set up, so that only their lower surfaces can be seen ; they can hardly walk, and their legs are principally employed to keep the body steady, and to support it. The antennae of all the species are clubbed, and are useful to distincruish the different kinds. THE PAPILIONIDT. 77 The swallow tail Papilio viacJiaon is a well known butter- fly in England, France, and the rest of Europe ; it is also found in Asia as far as the Himalayas, and even in South Africa. Every one has seen it flying in the fields and resting on the milk parsley and other umbelliferous plants, and has admired its great size, its yellow wings, marked and splashed with black, and its hinder ones so beautifully ornamented with a row of eye-shaped spots of light blue. The butterfly appears for the first time every year in the month of May and a second time in the month of July. A very pretty caterpillar, about an inch and a half in length, may be found on the wild fennel and carrot plants during June and September. It is of a very vivid green colour, and is orna- mented with black velvety rings and large dabs of . a reddish fawn colour. When this caterpillar — which is that of Papilio niachaon — is quietly browsing upon its favourite plant, it resembles many others, and there is nothing very remarkable about the insect ; but if it be touched it suddenly pokes out a spotted tentacule from between the head and the first segment of the body, and there being one on each side, they look like horns. Doubtless the insect believes that its enemies are alarmed by this proceeding, and a faint smell is certainly produced at the same time. These horns are common in the caterpillars of the genus Papilio. The caterpillar of Papilio machaon has rather a small head, the skin of which is not much harder than that of the rest of the body. It feeds upon soft leaves, and the mandibles are weak and their cutting edge is not toothed. The upper lip or labrum is not split, but simply notched, and this indicates that the insect browses upon small leaves or upon those which are very " com- pound," as the botanists have it, and which do not require to be held steadily whilst the masticating is going on. The mem- branous legs of this caterpillar are evidently admirably adapted for a larva that crawls upon easily grasped stems and twigs. They end in an inner margin, which is covered with spines, and in an outer, which is furnished with little hairs that materially assist the sense of touch. There are two caterpillars of Papilio machaon represented 73 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. in the engraving, and their peculiar horn-shaped prominences may be noticed behind their heads. '* An angular chrysdis is repre- 2nted hung by its tail end and slung also by a girdle of silk to se W "^ MEMBRANOUS FEET OF CATERPILLARS. I. Papilio machaon. 2. Vanessa urticse. 3- Charaxes jasius. 4- Thecla W. album. a Stem. The caterpillar does not spin a cocoon, but slings itself, and the chrysalis stage is completed in May. The special adaptation of the external organs of the cater- pillar to definite methods of existence is very noticeable. Thus, in Carolina, Virginia, and Louisiana, there are swallow-tails CATERPILLAR AND CHRYSALIS OF PapiUo Viachaoil. {Papilio astcrias) whose caterpillars live on umbelliferous plants, like those of Papilio machaon, and their oral (mouth) struc tures, and their feet, are like those of the coirmon European insect. In the same districts a Papilio troilus lives on laurels in its caterpillar state, and the larva has its labrum or upper lip more split than the others, so as to hold the leaf it gnaws —moreover, the spines of the feet are stronger, so as to enable riiF. MKrAMoKi'imsKS OK Papilio iiuu/uion. THE PAPILIONIDI. -^ 79 the creature to walk over the stems and leaves of the plants, which are more difficult to grasp than those of the Umbdlifercs. These species may be compared with a swallow-tail from Bengal {Papilio Hector^, which has its black wings spotted with white and red. Its caterpillar has a very hard head, and its labrum is deeply notched ; the mandibles are powerful, and are armed with saw-like edges, and the legs are much more spined than those of the other kinds. The Bengalese caterpillar evidently crawls over vegetable tissues which are not easily climbed, and lives upon large and hard leaves, and it is said that herbaceous Aristolochiacem are its favourite food. This caterpillar's peculiar structures relate distinctly to its habits. It has, however, two rows of tubercles on the back, whilst the body of our species is smooth. Several very closely-allied genera, which belong to the same little group of Lepidoptera as the genus Papilio, are very remarkable, for more reasons than one. The Oniithoptera are readily distinguished by their great size, their strongly-formed head, their long anterior wings, and their toothed hind ones which have not a vestige of a swallow-tail ; they are magnifi- cent butterflies, which inhabit the Moluccas, the Philippines, and the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. Travellers in Amboina are always struck with the beauty of the great OniitJwptera Priainus, whose wings have a diameter of from six to eight inches. The black velvety colour and the bril- liant and silky green tints of the wings of the male are most harmoniously contrasted, and he is a glorious fellow ; but the female, although larger than its beautiful companion, is very quietly clothed in deep brown with white spots. In most mountainous countries there are species of the genus Paruassius, which have a short body, short antennae, and wings as crisp as parchment, and almost without any scales on their surfaces. The Paruassius Apollo is common during the summer on the Alps, the Jura mountains, the Puy-de-D6me, the Pyrenees, the Caucasus, and the Sierra Nevada ; and it has rather a striking appearance, on account of its great white wings being semi-transparent, spotted and dotted with black, and ornamented with splashes of vermilion, surrounded by black tints, 8o TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. and marked with white eye-shaped circles. Its caterpillar is velvety black, and has tubercles which are more or less blue, with orange-coloured points. It lives upon the Saxifrages and the Crassulaceous plants of the hills. When it undergoes the transformation into the chrysalis state, it forms a silken net around the body, and attaches the end of the abdomen to its resting-place, and forms the usual girdle by which it is safely anchored. Most of the pupae or chrysalides of the Lepidoptera are naked, but from the above example it is evident that the protecting nature of a silken coverlet bears some reference to the exposure of the quiet insect to cold and rain, which are common enough in Alpine districts, and which would tend to destroy were there no natural clothing. Nevertheless, the protection it gives must be slight, for the insect has to sling itself, after being invested by it. The Pieridi, which are vulgarly termed Cabbage Butterflies, on account of the favourite food of the caterpillars of one genus, are found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. The larvae are remarkable on account of the small size of the head and the end of the body, and their hairy skin. The pupae are very angular, and have a pointed projection in front. The butterflies always have wings, without tails, and the legs are long and hairy. The type of the genus is the Picris brassiccB, the great Cabbage Butterfly, which is to be seen in every garden and field in Europe. The butterfly is, moreover, well known in Asia Minor, in Egypt, in Northern Africa, in Siberia, in Nepaul, and even in Japan. The caterpillar makes sad havoc amongst the cabbages, and it is not a pleasant-looking nor a nice-smelling vegetarian. Its greenish body, marked with three lon<7 yellow lines broken into here and there, by little black hairy tubercles, excites indignation in the breast of every gardener. Unfortunately, they are not solitary in their habits, for they generally abound in swarms, and destroy the tenderest leaves of the hardest-hearted cabbages with infinite relish, and with an utter disregard of consequences. Everybody has met with some of these caterpillars wandering about the roads and paths, and crawling up walls and palings, in order to find a 'J THE riERIDL 8 1 cornice, or a safe projection under which they may turn into chrysalides, and rest in safety until the spring-time of the next year. Myriads of them are killed by remorseless market gar- deners, and devoured by birds ; but were it not for a little ichneumon fly {Microgaster glomerator) the existence of cabbages would indeed be imperilled. The caterpillars change their skin several times during their growth, and finally hang themselves up by the tail, and sling a silken girdle round their body before undergoing the meta- morphosis into the chrysalis. Some small Picridi, whose delicate wings are ordinarily varie- gated with green colours, form the genus Anthocharis. This name indicates the grace and exquisite beauty of the little butterflies that rival the flowers they roam over in symmetry. The orange- tip Anthocharis cardammcs, so common in the spring of the year in wood-side lanes, quite deserves its title, and it is the male whose fore wings are marked with an orange spot. In the centre of France, and in Southern Europe, there is another Anthocharis, whose males have perfectly yellow wings. But so far as colouring is concerned, there are some remarkable facts in reference to some species of the genus which have white tints on the upper surface of the wings in both sexes. The Anthocharis bclia of the centre of France sometimes wanders close to Paris, and is found in Southern Europe and in North Africa. There are two gene- rations of it every year. The first butterflies escape from the chrysalis state in the months of March and April, having been in that condition all the winter. Their hinder wings are of a delicate yellow green below or on their under surfaces, and are ornamented with spots of the purest nacreous white. These butterflies produce a new generation, whose adults appear at the end of June or to the beginning of August. These are larger than the first, and their wings are marked with a dull white. This interesting variation in the colouring of the same species at different times of the year is seen also in one of the VancsscB ( Vanessa prorsd), whose successive generations are so different that separate names have been given them. The butterflies of this species, which are common in France, are G 82 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. very small ; some of them may be seen towards the end of April or the beginning of May, when Nature has awakened from her long sleep, and the leaves are beautiful from their freshness. They play around the nettles under the shade of the damp underwood. Their wings look new and unworn, for their texture resembles velvet, and they are of a bright fawn colour, being also ornamented with wandering black lines, which give the common name to the insect of the " carte geographique." If the same spots are re-visited during the month of June, none of the pretty little butterflies can be seen, but the nettle leaves are covered here and there with little black caterpillars, which have white dots, and fine branching spines. These are the offspring of the pretty April butterflies. When the caterpillars have attained their full growth they separate, and each, after fastening itself, becomes a grey chrysalis, having the angular form, like those of all Vanessce. It is now the month of June, and the temperature of the air is high, so that the development and the metamorphoses are rapid. A fortnight passes, and the little " cartes geographiques " burst from the chrysalis state. Now this second generation differs materially, so far as colouring is concerned, from the first which produced it. The wings of the July butterflies are black, and are scratched with whitish lines. But this is not all. The Vanessce with the black wings lay their eggs, and little caterpillars are hatched, in August and September. These devour the favourite nettles, and resemble those which did the same thing in June. Like the others, these autumnal caterpillars hang themselves up, and are meta- morphosed into pupae. If the autumn is fortunately a prolonged summer, some butterflies will escape from the chrysalis condition in October. Strange to say, their wings have neither the black colours of the July butterflies, nor the fawn tint of the April brood, but an intermediate ornamentation. This late meta- morphosis is rare, but it can be produced artificially by keeping the chrysalides in a warm place. Most of the chrysalides, and sometimes all of them, live in this state through the winter, and are metamorphosed into the true "cartes geographiques" during the spring, and the butterflies are then tinted with fawn colour. THK METAMORrildSES ()K Vailt'SSa lo. I THE VANESSIDI. 83 An Anthocharis with a larger body than those just mentioned has been noticed in Orenburg, and is not very remarkable in the adult state, but Dr. Rambur having met with it in Andalusia, in the environs of Malaga and Granada, studied its metamor- phosis. The caterpillar lives in the fields on coniferous plants. It makes a sort of delicate shroud of silk for itself before becoming a pupa, the shape of which is not at all angular, like those of the other Papilionidi, The most favourite, perhaps, of all the butterflies is the Pea- cock — Vanessa lo. If it came from the tropics alone its value would be incalculable, but although it is so common its beautiful ornamentation and splendid colouring always make it prized. This Vanessa appears in the spring-time and also in the summer, and a third generation may ornament the autumn. Nettles are the food of the caterpillar, as they were with the small Vanessa just described. In their early days the caterpillars hatched from one set of eggs keep together and do not separate until the time for metamorphosis is at hand. They crowd upon the same leaf or twig, and when this is eaten they move en masse to others. Their colour is velvety black, pointed with white, and each segment of their bodies, except the first, carries six branching spines or stiff hairs. The membranous feet have a circle of very fine spines upon them, and they are constructed so as to climb the rather tender twigs and leaves of the nettle. Before turning into the chrysalis the caterpillars fix themselves usually to the leaves of their favourite plant or to some other in its immediate neighbourhood. Fifteen days after this the butter- flies escape. The different generations do not exhibit any altera- tions in their colouring, so that those noticed in the case of the other VanesscB must have some other cause than the influence of heat and light. Some of the latest metamorphosed peacocks hybernate and fly early in the spring. The pendant chrysalis and the butterfly of Vanessa lo are shown in the plate with several caterpillars. The angular shape of the chrysalis is very evident. The favourite White Admiral butterfly frequents woods and forest glades in preference to the open fields and gardens, and flies in June, and sometimes as late as September. Its spiny G 2 8.4 TliANSFOR^fATIOiVS OF LVSECTS. caterpillar is well known as a honeysuckle eater, and its green colour blends with that of the plant. The caterpillar of the Papilionidi already mentioned have their feet especially suited for climbing their favourite plants, but the white admiral's larva is badly off in this respect. Its feet are not sufficiently furnished with spines and hairs to enable it to climb with perfect safety, for the twigs of the honeysuckle are smooth, hard, and often long ; the spinning glands are, therefore, brought into requi- sition, and a fine silken thread placed here and there on the plant, and collected more decidedly on the leaves, protects the caterpillar from falling violently to the ground. The chrysalis is very angular in its aspect, and is of a dark greenish brown, but it is ornamented on the upper part of the abdomen with brilliant silvery spots and a large one of pale green. The great Liincnitis poptili is rather common in the large forests in France, and its caterpillar choses very inaccessible places, such as the very top of poplar trees, so as to feed safely and well. Many a tired butterfly hunter has given up the chase after this splendid insect, whose flight is very strong and high, and were it not for a peculiar habit of this exquisite and delicate-looking creature specimens of it would be very rare in collections. Many are the evils of dirty habits and common tastes, and curious are the longings of the beautiful for the vulgar. The great Poplar Butterfly loves the moisture of horse dung, and leaves the tree tops to dip its trunk in the nauseous mess : then is the time for the butterfly net. A large greenish caterpillar which moves very slowly, and looks remarkably stupid and dull, lives during the month of May upon the tops of aspen, willow, and poplar trees, whose constant motion must be very dangerous to it. The feet of the larva are not well furnished with the means of clinging on, but the creature makes use of its spinners and completely covers the leaves upon which it feeds, so that the wind may blow as much as it likes, providing the leaves do not come off. This Nymplialis ilia is a large butterfly with dark wings and yellowish white spots upon them, the whole having beautiful violet tints in certain lights. It flies near long rows of poplars, especially if there is any water near, and loves the shade of the meadows close to great woods. lETAMORriinsES OF THE MART'.i.ED WHITE (/irgc j^alathca). THE SATYRIDI. 85 The fine Purple Emperor, Apainra iris, whosQ caterpillars live on the oak trees, is one of the gems of all collections. Its magnificence is greater than its gentility, for Mr. Stainton accuses this monarch of the Lepidoptcra of having a penchant for home- made gooseberry wine, and for leaving his realms in the air in order to seek the " shades " of a gooseberry bush. M. Pierret says it condescends to still lower tastes, and the only satisfac- tion is that they lead it to destruction. All these species of the old genus Nymphalis prefer sucking very nasty things or the sweeter sap and gum of plants and trees to enjoying the nectar of flowers. The Satyridi are world-wide butterflies. In Europe they are to be found on open plains, arid downs, the road side, forests, and even on the mountains amidst the everlasting snow. From spring to autumn the tawny, grey, and brown butterflies are constantly flying here and there, but for short distances, wherever there is the rankest and commonest vegetation. Their caterpillars live on the different kinds of grasses, and although they must be very common they are very rarely seen except by those who can look for them scientifically. They do not feed upon the slender grass leaves at all during the day, but hide themselves up at the bottom of the plant, with whose colours their tints harmonise. At night-time, however, they move for short distances and eat. This is an interesting habit, and contrasts with that of the majority of their fellow caterpillars. The larvae of the Satyridi are all shaped alike. The body is rather hairy, narrowed at each end, and the last segment is furnished with two hooks. The pupae are short and well set, and do not exhibit any of the strange-shaped projections which are common in the chrysalides of the NympJialidi. A pretty butterfly {Arge galathed), the Marbled White, is rather common in the middle of summer in the whole of central and northern Europe, and it is our commonest representative of the Satyridi. The caterpillar lives upon some of the simplest grasses, and frequents the Timothy grass in England. The but- terfly has the very delicate antennae hardly swollen at their ends. The black and white ornamentation of the perfect insect is very distinctive, and the accompanying plate shows the fusiform cater- S6 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. pillars and a chrysalis, attended by a marbled white, upon one of the Compositae and by two others in different positions. CATERPILLARS AND BUTTERFLIES OF TJucla W. album. The genus Ercbia has its species in abundance in mountainous districts. They are small butterflies, whose black wind's are THE LYC^NW^. Sy ornamented with eye-shaped spots of fawn or red colour ; and these negroes, as they are termed, are found upon the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Caucasus, the Himalayas, and even upon the Rocky Mountains. Some closely allied forms, belonging to the genus Chionobas, are of a tawny or pale greyish yellow colour, and are found in the remotest north of Europe, America, Iceland, Siberia, and Kamschatka, and one kind lives in the Alps. There are some Satyridi in South America, the forms and colour of wings of which are very different to those of the Euro- pean kinds. Thus, the HcctercB of Brazil and Guiana have festoon- shaped wings, which are partly transparent The scales on the wings, scantily sown, as it were, are almost wanting in many spots, where they are often replaced by pretty little hairs. The mem- brane of the wing is, however, very iridescent, and produces very pretty effects of light and shade. The caterpillars of the Thccla W. album, one of the LyccBnidcc, and so called on account of a curious white mark near the end of the hinder wings like the letter W, feeds on the elm and haw- thorn, and owes its safety to its colour being so very exactly like that of the foliage upon which it lives. The general shape of the larva and the short legs impede its movements, and the insect is rarely found off a leaf After having devoured one leaf the caterpillar crawls on to the next, and this is about the extent of its travels. The caterpillar usually lies very closely upon the under surface of leaves, and its tints so resemble those of the elm that it is not readily perceived. The chrysalis is found attached to the leaves, which have partly contributed to the maintenance of the larva, and the butterfly escapes about a fortnight after the first transformation. One of the species of TJiccla — the Green Hair-streak, or Tliccla rtibi — has an ornamentation, so far as colour is concerned, which is, perhaps, exceptional in the Lepidoptera. Its wings are brown above, but of a uniform light blue beneath. A Californian species has its wings of the same colour, and affords an example of the close relationship between the butterflies of North America and the temperate tracts of Europe. The Hcspcridce are butterflies that have many points of resemblance with moths, and therefore are unlike those we have 8S TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. noticed hitherto. They have a thick body, a large and strong head, and the antennae swollen and spindle-shaped at their ends, or hooked. Their legs are well developed ; the hind ones are particularly strong, and the others are spined. The wings are small in proportion to the size of the bodies, in these Lepidoptera, THE METAMORPHOSES OF Paniphihi aracynthits. and they are generally grey, brownish, or fawn in colour. The butterflies have a curious and hesitating flight, and are very pro- perly called Skippers. The caterpillars differ from those of the other Lepidoptera already noticed as much as the butterflies do ; they have a long and thin shape, with a large rounded head, and they are remarkable for their brisk movements. In order to hide safely, the caterpillars roll up the side of a leaf, and fasten it with some of their silk. Before the first metamorphosis they choose a safe hiding-place ; then they attach themselves by their extremity like the other diurnal forms. THE HESPERID^. 89 Before transformation proceeds, however, they swathe themselves with a set of silken lines, which cross and re-cross the body, and finally the thin, long, and angular chrysalis rests in a slight cocoon. The European species are all small, and the name of Pmnphila is given to those of a genus which delight in underwood and thick forests. Their bodies are thinner than those of the other HesperidcB, and the ends of their antenna are egg-shaped. The engraving represents the long and slender caterpillar and the elongate chrysalis, this being swathed with crossing fibres of silk. The butterfly is brownish black above, and the male is almost without spots, but the female is slightly marked with yellow. The posterior wings are ornamented beneath in both sexes with white spots, encircled with brown, and which resemble so many mirrors. This insect inhabits large woody tracts during June and July. The caterpillar, as shown in the engraving, is found on grasses in the spring ; it is of a green colour, like the plant it feeds upon, and as it generally keeps near the stalk, is not readily discovered. The transformation into the pupa form is preceded by the formation of the silken swathing already noticed. The leaf-rolling propensity is especially noticed in a species of Syrichtiis, one of the Hesperidce, which curls up the mallow leaves upon which it feeds. The caterpillars of most of the PapilionidcB do not swathe their bodies, but place a silken girdle over themselves very cleverly, just before the first metamorphosis. The cabbage butterfly caterpillar, when it has shed its skin several times, and has attained its full growth, retires to a quiet place — on palings, or under the eaves, and fixes its tail-end to the surface upon which it is to hang for many months. It applies its mouth to the wood-work, for instance, and draws out some silk. After doing this several times, and thus producing a small silken tangle, the insect attaches the end of its body to the silk, and hangs head downwards. The caterpillar has thus fixed itself, and the end of the body grasps the silk so perfectly, that the whole hangs safely. But to prevent the wind moving the future chrysalis, and rubbing it against the wood, another operation is commenced. As it hangs head downwards, the caterpillar 90 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. throws back its head, and twists it sideways, so as to touch the wood on one side of the body. The touch pulls out a silken thread, and then the insect carries the head to the other side, and fixes the silk. This is repeated several times, until a sort of sling is placed over the body. Then the first metamor- phosis takes place, and the chrysalis finds itself slung by the tail, and girded to the wood-work by a silken sling. The first step to cocoon making, which is so usual in the next division of the Lepidopiera, is shown in the habit that CATERPILLARS OF THE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY SLINGING THEMSELVES BEFORE THE FIRST METAMORPHOSIS. Pamphila aracyntlms has of swathing itself with a network of silk before undergoing the first metamorphosis, and the leaf- rolling propensities of many caterpillars and moths are fore- shadowed by a species of SyricJitits. The angular shape of the butterfly chrysalides may have something to do with their comparatively unprotected and uncovered state, for this sharpness of outline which causes them to differ in appearance from most living things is not so perfectly seen in the case of the Anthocharis, from Spain, which spins a slight cocoon. It has already been stated that the repeated sheddings of the skin and mucous (epithelial) tissues of the caterpillars during THE LEPIDOPTERA. 9r their growth really form a most important part of the phenomena of evolution, for some very necessary alterations in the internal structures progress especially during the last stage of quiet retire- ment which accompanies the final change of skin before the commencement of the chrysalis state. Although several broods of caterpillars are born in a year in such species as AntJiocJiaris belia and Vanessa prorsa, yet CHRYSALIDES SLUNG AND SUSPENDED. the successive larvae present no distinctions in their external ornamentation, but the perfect insects which are metamorphosed from these similar larvae do differ very materially. Yet the butterflies of Vanessa lo, a species closely allied to Vanessa prorsa, are always the same, notwithstanding there are successive broods of them in the year. This variation in the colouring and ornamentation of the butterflies of successive broods is most interesting, especially when it is considered in relation to the opposite state of things so common in some species of moths, whose generations of caterpillars differ, the perfect insects remaining unaltered. The 92 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. change in the butterfly must be determined in the chrysalis state, and during the progress of the second metamorphosis. It has been proved that the duration of the chrysalis condition can be lengthened by placing the pupa in cold and dark places, or in ice, and shortened by increasing the usual amount of warmth. But no variation in the ornamentation of the perfect insect has been produced by this artificial lengthening or shortening of chrysalis life. So that most probably the disposition of these butterflies to vary has some deep significance, which refers to the duration of the species in time — moribund genera and species varying much, and new forms striving to adapt themselves to peculiar conditions. The hybernation of some of the large butterflies through the winter in temperate climates is very interesting. CHAPTER V. THE LEPIDOPTERA WITH WINGS UNITED BY A HOOK. ( Chalinoptera. ) All these Lepidoptera were formerly called moths or crepuscular and nocturnal flyers, but as some of the night-loving tribes were equally active during sunshine, and as none of them really wandered in the depths of the darkness, when everything sleeps, there was no wisdom in keeping up these popular distinctions. The structure which retains the hind and fore wings on each side together is a very good distinction, especially as it is common to most twilight and nocturnal Lepidoptera, it being deficient in the butterflies ; nevertheless, it is wanting in some kinds of moths. The tints of the wings of moths (under this term we include the nocturnal and crepuscular Chalinoptera) are principally shades of grey and brown, and resemble the colours of the trees and walls, when the light is dim, and night is advancing. But the wings of some, although not so brilliant and coruscating as those of the butterflies, are exquisitely delicate and soft in their tone. Some of the moths that fly by day, and thus lead the life of butterflies, often have colours as glowing as these have, but the tints are never brilliant and sparkling. The educated eye can distinguish at once between the scales of a butterfly and those of the brightest of moths. The wings of moths rest upon the body of the insect when in repose, and are not stuck upright like those of the butterflies. The antennae of the moths are very different in shape to those of the butterflies, as can readily be seen by comparing 94 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. the representation of the structures in the accompanying en- graving with that of those of the butterflies on page ']6. ANTENNi^ OF MOTHS. Sphinx ligustri. Bombyx cecropia. Fidonia plumaria. There are some Lepidoptera which come under the division we are now considering, but which may readily be taken for hornet-like flies. Their projecting bodies, and particularly their colouring, which is black with yellow bands, give the individuals of the genus Scsia a very waspish look. They are really moths, the appearance of which in the perfect state is as odd as is that of their caterpillars. Their wings do not look like those of but- terflies ; narrow, and nearly entirely transparent and naked, they THE METAMORPHOSIS OF THE SPHINGINA. 95 are bereft of scales, except upon the nervures, upon the margin, and in some scattered spots. With the essential character of the Lepidoptera, they have almost the physiognomy of the Hymcnop- tera, or bee tribe. It is rather curious to notice how the insects of one order mimic those of another with which they have no family con- nection. The strangest part of the matter is, that the habits of the SesiidcB are not in the least like those of the very violent- tempered insects whose uniform they wear. The SesiidcB, although moths, fly in the hottest sunshine, and often rest on trees and shrubs, in order to lay their small round eggs. The caterpillars have an elongate, and almost cylindrical body, and they live in the interior of the trunks of trees, of branches, roots, and even in some fruits. Pale, and almost with- out the least colour, like beings which never see the light, there is no difficulty in determining that they are wood-eating larvae. One of these wasp-like moths is called the bee-shaped Sesia {Sesia apifonnis), and it may be seen flying to and fro amongst the poplars by the river side, or running with much agility upon their trunks. This moth, which is classified by Mr, Stainton under the genus Sphecia, lays its eggs on the bark of poplar trees, low down and near the ground. When the caterpillars are hatched they gnaw the bark, and each endeavours to pene- trate the tree by excavating a tiny gallery. The larvae live a long time, and drill holes of a considerable size, doing much harm to the trees. They are enabled to do this quietly and efl*ectually, for instead of only living for a few weeks before their metamorphosis into the chrysalis, and having jaws fitted for browsing the tender shoots and leaves, their caterpillar life lasts two years, and their masticating apparatus is strong, and admirably fitted for its purpose. It is very remarkable that they should only flourish upon those trees which have been injured ; and it would appear that the abundance of the sap of perfect and healthy poplars is too much for the excavators. An examination of the caterpillar proves how admirably it is adapted for its peculiar method of life, and how perfectly help- less it would be upon a tender succulent plant. The legs are g6 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. smaller than those of most other larvce, for had they been larger, they would have been in the way in the narrow exca- vated gallery ; the membranous feet also are short, and are not calculated to grasp, but they can adhere strongly to a large surface, and their spines form a complete crown. The head of the larva is covered with a reddish and hard integument, so as to allow a solid foundation for the action of the jaws in grinding the dense tissue of the tree. Curiously enough the labrum, or lip, is not notched as it is in the leaf-eaters, and this fact proves the design that has influenced the development of all the other structures. The body has a soft skin, and is covered with tubercles and a few hairs, which render the larva very sensitive to the touch. The caterpillar produces a small quantity of silk, but not enough to make a comfortable resting- place for the chrysalis, so it utilises the saw-dust which has accumulated during the process of tunnelling and drilling, and forms a comfortable and silken cocoon within, and covers it with the dust outside. The chrysalis resembles those of the other moths in certain respects, but it has an armature which is not merely an ornament, but a most useful mechanism, for it helps the pupa to crawl. Immediately after the transformation into the moth state, the life of the perfect insect is more or less endangered, for in traversing the gallery made when it was a caterpillar, it might be severely scratched, and its wings spoiled. But the enveloping skin of the chrysalis, with its spines and sharp points, acts like a suit of armour to the Scsia, which has just got its legs into the world. The insect drags its body slowly along, and finally reaches the open air, and extricates itself and flies away, leaving the skin behind stuck in the hole. In the engraving of the metamorphoses of Scsia apifonnis, the moth on the tree has just escaped from the chrysalis case in the hole below. A larva is shown in its gallery, and two cocoons also. The Zygccnida; have some likeness to the Scsiida:, and are very common in southern Europe, some being found, however, in France and Great Britain. The moths fly by day, and like the sun and the bright flowers ; they are a sluggish set, however, and this peculiarity is found in the larva as well. Some of thsm have iL Ml 1 \Mi 1 iiiO^ES di' Sc's/a a/i/l>r»tis. THE SPHINGIDM. o- immense antennae upon their very small heads ; and the narrow wings, which are green or a very deep blue, with spots or bands of rich carmine, make them to be very much sought after. One species, Zygcena filipendidcB, is very well known over large districts, and it is amusing to see these "six spot burnets" buz- zing about in considerable numbers around the dandelions, thistles, and other common plants, or flying heavily and slowly over the hills. The moth is of a steel-blue colour, and has patches of car- mine on its front wings ; the hinder wings are red, with a black border. The caterpillar is rather bloated-looking, and is orna- mented with small bundles of delicate hairs ; it is of a pale yellow colour, and has rows of black spots upon it. Its head is very small, and the jaws are made after the model of those of the tender leaf eaters. It lives upon many kinds of leguminous plants. When about to undergo the first metamorphosis the caterpillar constructs a long cocoon, of a pale yellow colour, and fixes it on twigs ; it is thin, but as strong as parchment, the silk which forms it being mixed with much secretion like varnish. The young larvae escape from the egg at the end of summer, and remain dull and stupid during autumn and winter. After this hybernation they wake up in the spring, and seek the plants upon which they can subsist. The engraving of the metamorphosis of the " six- spot burnet," the Antlirocera filipendnlcB, of Stainton, or the ZygcEua of the same name, shows the chrysalis in its cocoon, fixed on to a stem, and the moth with the large antennae. No family of the Lepidoptera is better known or more readily distinguished than that of the Sphingidce, Sphinges or Sphinxes, as they are commonly called. The large body, the thick antennae, terminating in a hooked bristle, and the long, narrow, and strong wings, give the sphinges a very marked appearance. These moths are usually large, and their active flight soon makes them noticed. They glide along during the hot summer evenings with immense rapidity, and poise themselves in the air by a peculiar vibration of their wings. The sphinges, which have long trunks, can thus sip up the honey from the nectaries of flowers without touching them, and this peculiarity recalls that of the humming birds of the New World. The Sphinges are very remarkable, even as caterpillars. They 11 98 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. are large creatures, which, when quiet, often put on a very curious attitude. Being well and safely fixed on a twig or leaf by their membranous or hind feet, they lift up the front of their bodies, and bend the head, which is buried in the first segment ; they then remain perfectly motionless for hours. This attitude — which is represented in the engraving of the EtipJiorbia sphinx — has excited much attention, and entomologists, whose imaginations are always vivid, and sometimes classical, have had no difficulty in investing LARVA OF THE DEATH'S HEAD SPHINX MOTH. this larva with the majesty of the Egyptian sphinx. Indeed, one of these stolid larvae has sufficed to bring up the memories of Thebes and of the great enigma before the enthusiastic naturalist. The name has become popular, and there is really something enigmatical in the queer posture. Why should the larva imitate the sphinx, which it never saw .-' The answer may be "common- place, but nevertheless true ; it remains thus motionless to prevent itself being gobbled up by birds or attacked by ichneumon flies, which are on the look-out for everything that moves. THE METAMORrilt.SES OF Zyg(aia jUipaiduhc, "the six spot BURNET. THE SPHINGID^. 99 These fine caterpillars have a smooth and glossy skin, with bright colours, and pretty ornamentation. Generally speaking, they are rather narrowed in front, and have a curved appendix on the top of the last segment of the body like a horn or tail. When about to become transformed into the pupa condition, the caterpillars hide themselves in the ground, forming a comfortable hole, which they line with all the silk they can muster. It is very wonderful, in this instance, as in all others, how the insects that live in the earth through very inclement seasons manage to make a safe retreat with so very little silk as a covering. The chrysalis has to live in the hole in the ground throughout the winter, and any water draining in would assuredly kill it. CHRYSALIS OF THE DEATH's HEAD SPHINX MOTH. The silk is all expended in lining the cavity, and fortunately, although it is scanty, it is so varnished that it is water-tight; hence the safety of the pupa is hardly a matter of doubt. Some species of SphingidcB undergo their metamorphoses on top of the soil, and agglutinate little stones, leaves, and rubbish into a cocoon. The pupae of these great caterpillars are not very remarkable ; they are dark brown or reddish, and have a small point at their end. The most common sphinges are the Privet Moth, or Sphinx lignstri, and the Convolvulus Hawk, or SpJiinx convolvidi. The caterpillars of the first are well known to and prized by young collectors, and are now and then seen upon the privet hedges, or upon the lilac bushes. They are very fine insects, and their size renders their beautiful light green colour and oblique bands of violet very visible. This pretty larva feeds vigorously during H 2 lOO TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. the summer, and when full grown begins to descend to the ground at the base of the tree, whose leaves it has partly consumed. Towards the end of July, or the commencement of August, it hides up in the earth, where it forms a comfortable cocoon, and becomes metamorphosed into a chrysalis, living, moreover, in that condition all through the winter, and until the month of June in the next year. It then bursts forth as a moth. The anatomy of this sphinx, and the details of its meta- morphoses have already been described. The other sphinx has a green or brown larva, marked with seven oblique side streaks, and the spiracles or air openings are black in white rings. It lives on the small bindweed, and on the wild balsam. The moth is rather larger than that of the privet sphinx, and has a very long trunk. Perhaps the DeilephilcB are the prettiest sphinges. Their trunk is only half as long as their body, which has a long and conical abdomen. These insects are rather common, and their caterpillars are really very pretty, on account of the variety of their colours, and the freshness of their tints. The Euphorbia sphinx is one of them, and is interesting, because there are two broods of it every year ; one appearing in June and the other in September. Its caterpillars live upon the pretty green leaves of the Euphorbia, whose stems, when broken, exude a milky sap. Before these larvae attain their full growth they may be seen in abundance on the same plant, but as they are gross feeders, they soon have to separate, in order to exist. Their bodies are curiously ornamented, being black in colour, and they have three long lines of a carmine tint upon them, one on the back, and the others above the line of the legs ; besides these there are some very close points and dots of yellow arranged on each segment, like coronets of pearls, and finally there are two rows on each flank of rounded spots, which are sometimes yellow, or even red or white and red in colour. Sometimes, Avith all this elaborate colouring, the foundation is a lively green instead of black. They become full grown towards the end of July, and they then hide themselves in the ground, after having formed a hole, and are transformed; but they do THK METAMORI'HOSES OK THE Sphinx eiipliorbhc. THE SPHINGIDM. 1 01 not stop in it very long, for the chrysalis becomes metamorphosed in a few weeks, and then the SpJiinx eupJiorbicB may be seen buzzing about the flowers in the early morning and during the evening twilight. It is a very pretty insect, the front wings of which are of a subdued rose colour, with three spots of deep green, and an undulating band of the same shade, and the hind wings are of a rose tint, with black bands. The caterpillars of this sphinx appear a second time on the Euphorbias in the same year. Towards the end of September they hide themselves in the earth, and become chrysalides, and remain in that state until the next year. The engraving represents the sphinx hovering over the Euphorbia, and the caterpillars upon the leaves, one being in the quiet, sphinx-like attitude. The chrysalis is on the ground. This interesting Deilephila is stated by Mr. Stainton to be found in England at Scarborough and Bideford. This author gives some interesting descriptions of the habits of the larvse, which were observed by Mr. Melhuish on the coast of Brittany, near St. Pol de Leon. This naturalist collected 400 of these beautiful insects in three days in the first week of September. He says, " All the larvae that I saw at liberty were seen by me between the hours of three and six P.M. They were invariably actively engaged, either in feeding or in running over the sand, which they did with great ease, from one plant which they had stripped to another with leaves. The eggs must be always laid at the top of the plant, among the soft budding leaves, for this is without exception the position of the youngest larvee. They then gradually work their way downwards, till, having eaten all the leaves, they reach the ground, and march off in search of more, leaving a broad trail on the sand. They are fond of the milk, and will eat everything except the stringy roots of the plant. The seed vessels they take between their front legs, and raising them- selves into the sphinx posture, gnaw away at one till it is demolished, just like a monkey with an apple, their feet being placed close before their mouths. If interrupted at any time while feeding, they turn round with the greatest fury, and spit out a quantity of green liquid 102 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. of an acid and disagreeable smell, similar to that of the milk of the plant, only worse. When a larva, after rambling about, finds a fresh plant to his taste, he sets to at once upon the bottom leaves, merely raising his head from the ground, and devours all within his reach, before proceeding to climb the stem. These bottom leaves are, of course, very inferior, but were the large larvae, who are old enough to travel, to mount up to the top of the plant at once, and eat all the tender shoots, of course all the tiny individuals just out of their eggs would be starved." Some very beautiful sphinges which belong to the genus CATERPILLAR OF Charocafiipii iierii. CJuzrocampa are occasionally found in England, but their home is on the shores of the Mediterranean sea, where their gigantic caterpillars revel upon the leaves of the delicate oleanders. In this country they have been found upon those plants and upon fuchsias and the epilobium, and they have their mouths especially adapted for biting the rather dense and thick leaves. The upper lip is very hard and is deeply notched, so that it can hold the leaf tightly, whilst the pair of strong denticulate jaws can cut pieces out of it without any difficulty. Sometimes the Oleander Sphinx wanders to the north, out of the region of the wild oleanders, and it has been taken in Paris, and even on the south coast of England. The caterpillar is green and some- times yellow, and has two large eye-shaped spots on the fourth segment, a longitudinal white streak on each side, and numerous THE SPHINGID^. 103 \ small white dots on the sixth and twelfth segments. The horn is orange-coloured, short, blunt, and curved downwards. Before undergoing the first metamorphosis the caterpillar loses its bril- liant appearance, and becomes brown and dirty yellow in colour. The chrysalis is of a hazel brown, streaked with a darker tint, and a black spot marks the position of the spiracles. The insect attains its full growth in the middle of the summer, and then makes a cocoon in the earth with a small quantity of silk and vegetable refuse, and protects the whole with dead leaves. The sphinx bursts from the chrysalis either in September or October, and is one of the handsomest of the Lepidoptcra. The wings are rather more than four inches across ; the front pair are pale rosy \^^,-^..^%=t CHRYSALIS OF Chczrocampa nerii. grey in colour ; they are marked with large irregular blotches of dull green, more or less intersected with wavy whitish streaks ; the hind wings are purplish brown or black at the base, and shade into a green tint towards the margin. The Elephant Hawk, or, as it is called in France, the Vine Sphinx, has two broods in the year ; and the caterpillar, which cannot secrete much silk, does not dig into the ground to under- go its metamorphosis, but makes a small cocoon on the surface by binding together mosses and dry leaves. The perfect insect has its body tinted with rose red and worked out with a light green. The light green wings have bands of a most delicate and velvety rose colour upon them, and the hinder pair are of the same general tint, but have a black base and a white fringe. Some sphinges are placed, on account of their very long trunks, I04 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. in the genus Macroglossa, and one of them is well known during hot summers, as the Humming Bird Moth or sphinx. They are to be seen in the bright sunshine flying from plant to plant with great velocity, and sucking nectar from the flowers without resting upon the petals. Like the humming birds, they make a buzzing noise, and hover over their favourite flowers, and feed without crumpling a leaf. They suck up the honey through their MOTH OF Ch(Zroca>!ipa tterti. very long trunks with great rapidity. The moth is of a brown colour, and there are black rays on the front wings, and the hinder pair are of a yellow fawn tint. The caterpillar lives upon the bedstraw, Galimn violiigo. The Death's Head Moth is a well-known sphinx, on account of its fine size, as well as from there being some markings on the thorax, which, with the aid of a little imagination, can be believed to represent a human skull. Unlike the humming-bird sphinx, the AcJierontia atropos has a short and thick trunk; its antennae. THE SPHING2DM. 105 moreover, are short, thick, and terminated in a hooked bristle. The head is large, and the abdomen very thick. The front wings are blackish brown, with indistinct tawny markings and a conspicuous yellowish dot near their centres ; the hind wings are yellow and have a narrow black central and a broad black marginal band. The moth possesses the power of squeaking, and this propensity ^? THE DEATH S HEAD MOTH. has given an infinitude of trouble to philosophers, who have formed many theories concerning the manner in which the sound can be produced. This gift, combined with the sombre hues of the sphinx, and the presence of the death's head upon its back, have surrounded the moths with much mysterious dread, and there are many people in the most civilised and learned countries in the world that are heartily afraid of them. They are said to be a sign of bad luck, and arc supposed to precede a death in the house ; and they once produced a downright panic in Brittany. The squeak- ing appears to be connected in some way or other with a small I06 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. membranous capsule, which is situated on either side of the body at the base of the abdomen, and which is covered with some hairs that can be made to vibrate. The fondness of the moth for honey leads it into bee-hives, and it is most remarkable that the insect should know that honey is to be got there. The bees, moreover, do not rush upon the robber, but employ every artifice to shut it out or wall it up. The caterpillar is perhaps the largest among the European kinds. It is usually lemon yellow in colour, and a fresh green tint may be noticed towards the head and the lower part of the sides ; there are seven oblique violet stripes on the sides, and the spiracles are black, edged with white. The horn is yellowish, rough, and inclined backwards. Sometimes the colour is by no means like this, for some caterpillars have been found whose prevailing colour is brownish olive, and whose lateral stripes are darker. A fresh green tint is accompanied by dark blue stripes in others. This great caterpillar lives on the potato leaf, the jasmine, and the common tea tree {Lyciiim barbariiin)\ and when full grown it hides in the earth, and undergoes its metamorphosis into the chrysalis. The death's head moth is more common in Asia and in Africa than in Europe, and there is no doubt that many of the pupse are destroyed in this country and in France during severe winters. Perhaps the largest sphinges in the world live in Australia, and their caterpillars feed upon the Banksia trees and bushes, which form most important parts of the foliage of the landscape of that country. The sphinges gradually become more and more like that great tribe of moths which may be considered to be represented by the silkworm moth. Thus there are some sphinges which have slender, flexible, or more or less pectinated antennae, and rudimentary trunks instead of the long and flexible organs of some of the hawks. Such species of the genus Svicrinthiis as the eyed hawks, poplar hawks, and lime hawks, live upon willow, poplar, birch, and apple trees, and connect by their structures the death's head moths, the privet, and humming-bird moths with the Bombyciiia or the spinners. The insects of this group are very numerous, and often attain THE BOMBYCINA. lO/ a great size ; they are celebrated for their beauty and strangeness of form, as well as for the simplicity of the decorations of the species which are the most valuable to man. As moths the Bombycina are usually stout and solid about the body without being as robust as the sphinges. Their wings are usually large, and the antennae, which are formed like the teeth and stem of a comb (pectinated), are sometimes feathery in the males. The trunk is rudimentary and useless, and the legs are short. The majority of the moths live for love, and the lady bombycides are so attractive that their pursuit and courtship are the sole pleasures and delights of the males, which seek them out at great distances and in a most remarkable manner. If a female moth be carried into a house in a town far away from the fields and hedges and be placed upon the window-panes, she will surely attract followers and lovers in abundance. Towards the evening the gentlemen begin to arrive ; they are in a great hurry, and usually are very short sighted : so that they can see their cherished object, what else is worthy of consideration ? Love laughs at locks, bolts, and bars, but a pane is no joke, and many an ardent bombyx bangs against this deceptive prison wall, maddened by the sight of bombycina and hopelessly in love. An Australian traveller once caught a pretty little moth and placed it in his pocket inside a box. All the evening he was pestered with moths that flew about him and settled upon him in every direction. They followed him into his house, and would not be satisfied without a sight of bombycina. The males which are thus able to find out the hidden females, have feathery antennae, and perhaps there is some excessively delicate organisation in them that gives the insect the peculiar power of discovering the distant and desired object. Sight is of no importance, neither is hearing, in this peculiar inquiry; and, although it is difficult to understand, probably the odour of the female insect attaches itself to anything it may touch, and thus attracts the males. There are many tribes in this great group. The BombycidcB contain the most remarkable species, and they all have almost invisible trunks and small palpi. A section of them, with large wings marked with a spot upon their disc, I08 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. is celebrated for containing the Bombyx mori — the mulberry cater- pillar or silkworm. This genus Bombyx has been sub-divided, so that now this well-known pet amongst children, and great care amongst silk growers, is called Sericaria. This insect is so well known that no description of its rapidly- growing caterpillar, the lazy chrysalis, and the quiet moth that never eats or sucks, is necessary. What a plain, ugly moth it is, and what a common looking grub comes from the ^%Z. There is nothing charming, no bright tints, and no delicate ornamentation ; moreover, it is rather clumsy looking. None of the graces of form or the magnificence of the colouring of the Lepidoptera that enliven the shades of the grandest flowers are here. The caterpillars of some species of the genus are even handsome, and have pretty green globular ornaments on their segments, and others like coral and pearl ; but the humble silkworm has none of these. Its beauties are intrinsic, and it yields the most beautiful web that Nature can produce, to render, if possible, the loveliest of all created things more attractive than ever. The comparison of the silkworm caterpillar with those of other moths soon enables us to dis- tinguish between the SpJiingidcg and the Bombycidce, and to notice how much they are alike in structure generally speaking. The silkworm caterpillar resembles those of some sphinges in its shape, and in its having the tubercle on the last segment but one of the body, but it differs from all by having its silk- bearing glands enormously developed. When a full-grown silk- worm caterpillar is opened, the intestinal canal will be seen to fill the greater part of the body, and on either side of the stomach and gullet there will be observed a large twisted tubular gland. This is the silk gland, or rather, of that viscous matter, which as it is drawn out, hardens into silk. These glands pass under- neath the gullet, and each is continued in the form of a narrow tube to the mouth ; they unite before reaching the head, and form one canal, into which open the ducts of two little glands, whose function is to unite the silken threads of the silk tubes, to varnish and brighten them, and to give them that perfection of texture we all admire and value. The canal opens in the lower lip or labrum, and passes through a small opening in a THE BOMBYCINA. 109 pimple-like projection. The silkworm caterpillar moves its head about in the same manner as other larvae with spinners, and draws out the silk in regular lengths. It changes its skin in the manner already described in a former chapter, and makes the wonderful cocoon before undergoing its first metamorphosis. The moths escape from the chrysalis state, which lasts about three weeks, and the eggs which are laid in the autumn are THE MOTH AND LARVA OF Attacus pavonia 7najor. hatched during the next spring. Some species, however, have two and even three broods in the year. There are some splendid moths belonging to the genus Attacus, which are closely related to the silkworms. They are usually large insects, and with very fine wings. Their antennai arc beautifully feathery, and decorate the heads of the moths very prettily. Some have wings with tailed prolongations, like the butterflies of the swallow-tail group, and, indeed, they exceed those of any other Lepidoptera in length. Their cater- pillars are large and heavy, but are very beautiful. Some have no TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. hairy tubercles upon them which are illuminated with vivid colours, and others carry spines which are very elegantly branched and twisted. They produce plenty of silk, and make large cocoons of it between the leaves of the trees they live upon before their metamorphosis. There is one of them which is rather common in Europe, the Attaciis pavonia major, and another, which is found in England, Attacjis pavonia minor (or Saturnid) the Emperor Moth. The first-mentioned Attacus, which the French call the Night Peacock, lives, when in the caterpillar state, on fruit trees and elms. The caterpillar prepares for transformation towards August, and leaves the trees, and wanders over the roads, and crawls up walls in 1 2 3 4 FEET OF THE CATERPILLARS OF MOTHS. I. Sesia apiformis. 2. Attacus pavonia major. 3. CucuUia verbasci. 4. Noctua segetum. order to seek a safe shelter for its cocoon, and it is then often discovered and made captive. But should a comfortable place be obtained, a large, pear-shaped cocoon is spun, which is hard, and contains much gummy matter. It is open at the smaller end, and the fibres of it are so arranged that nothing can come in, whilst the moth, when it is ready, can go out with ease. All insects are thus kept carefully and effectually out of the snug silken house, and the mechanism of this interesting and very safe place depends upon the manner in which the caterpillar weaves the cocoon over itself before passing the silk from one side of it to the other. The feet of some of these caterpillars are very interesting, and those of the Attacus pavonia major are THE BOMBYCINA. Ill especially strong and membranous, in order that it can grasp the twigs safely. The emperor moth has a veiy pretty larva, which is often found upon heather in the summer. It is green, and each segment has seven pink tubercles on black rings, and each tubercle has a tuft of short black hair. The spiracles are orange in colour. The caterpillars of Attaais cecropia, from Louisiana, are remarkable for the changes they undergo in moulting, before transforming themselves into pupae. At their birth they are almost black, and are decorated with verticiUate hairs, which make them look like little hedgehogs. After a few days their general colour becomes clearer and lighter, and the tubercles which support the hairs become more promi- nent. The skin is then moulted, and the new one succeeds, and is of a grey green or russet colour, and all the tubercles and spines are brilliantly black. Moulting again occurs, and, behold, a light green creature appears, with five rows of black spots ; two mag- nificent tubercles of a carmine colour are to be observed on the second and third segments, and two of a light yellow are situated upon the dorsal part of every other segment. Each tubercle carries several verticiUate hairs, which are black. A third moult finds the body becoming an azure blue on the back, with black spots on the sides and head ; the tubercles form two rows on the back, and are much enlarged ; they are red in colour, and the other tubercles have a single spine upon them. Finally the last moult takes place, and the caterpillar turns out to be of a ps^Ie green colour, with all the lateral tubercles of a light green, and the red tubercles have taken on an orange tint, and have only one spine. These changes of colour and of the development of tubercles and hairs during the skin-shedding are indeed most remarkable. The cocoons of these caterpillars are double. There is an envelope, hard, and like parchment in its texture, which can readily be separated from the inner and silky one. An Attacus, whose moth, larvae, and cocoon are represented in the engraving, is called Attacus liina, and is celebrated for the fine silk of its caterpillar, which feeds especially upon the Liquid- ambar trees of Carolina and Florida. 112 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. Several of the Boinhycidcs, which are common in England and France, are very interesting to the naturalist, but are very- troublesome to the farmer and gardener. The Eggars, so called from the firm, egg-shaped cocoons spun by the caterpillar, are very numerous, and the Oak Eggar, which is so common, is named Lasiocaiiipa quercils. Although so constantly seen, this species requires much more study than has hitherto been given to it, and one or two points especially deserve attention — namely, the duration of the caterpillar life, and the hybernation which takes place before the transformation into the chrysalis condition. The male moths are of a rich chocolate brown colour ; beyond the centre of the wings is a deep yellow band, which shades into chocolate at the hind margin, and there is a white central spot in the fore wings, and a yellowish patch towards their base. The female has pale yellow wings, with the white spot and a very light bartd. Mr. Stainton says that the colour of the female is tawny. There is thus a great distinction between the colours of the sexes, and, moreover, the females are much larger insects than the males. These moths appear in the month of July, and the females lay their eggs in August upon leaves. The eggs are hatched in a few days, and the caterpillars do not begin to eat like most others, but to all intents and purposes hybernate, if they can be said to do such a thing, in the month of August, As soon as they are out of the &g^, the caterpillars begin to look out for a shelter, and seek cracks in the bark of trees and such places. Having discovered a fit place, the insect hides itself up, does not come forth to feed, and does not become metamorphosed into a chrysalis, but stops there through the autumn, winter, and far into the spring. The caterpillar does not take any nourish- ment for nine months, but remains in a stupid and lethargic state until the warmth of the spring drives a little vitality into it. Then it feeds, and soon becomes transformed into a chry- salis. These fasting caterpillars are of a blackish hue, with rusty greyish hairs, which wave gracefully when the insects walk ; they feed upon the oak, the briar, and the broom, in woods, and upon gooseberry bushes, plum trees, lilacs, and privet, in gardens and orchards. They fasten their egg-shaped and dense cocoons either THE METAMORPHOSES OK AttaCUS luiia. THE BOMBYCINA. 113 to the branches of trees and shrubs, or in holes in or under the corners of walls. Another Lasiocampa has a very fine hairy caterpillar ; it is goiden brown on the back, and is otherwise of a velvety black ; it IS frequently met with in the autumn, crawling over paths and roads in order to seek its hiding-place. In this it hybernates \ THE LACKEY MOTH {Clisiocainpa neustrid). A twig with many collections of eggs upon it. A male moth on a leaf. A female flying. The caterpillar. during the winter, and does not spin its cocoon until the next year, when it becomes transformed. This moth is called by a variety of names ; it lives on heath, according to Mr. Stainton, and is termed the Fox by him, but the French say it lives upon everything eatable, and call it " Polyphage." It is usually known as Lasiocampa riibi. The Lackey Moth {Clisiocainpa neustrid) is very common all over Europe, and does a vast deal of mischief in the caterpillar, state. The moth has wings coloured a yellow fawn or russet red, 114 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. and the front pair have two transverse brown streaks upon them. It appears in July, and is very fond of orchards. The female lays her eggs in a very regular manner ; the eggs are very sticky, and are deposited around small branches and twigs in little rings or a series of bracelets one behind the other, so that when the lea^'es have fallen, these symmetrical rows of egg-rings become very visible, and then is the time to destroy them. As soon as they escape from the eggs the little caterpillars unite in numerous sets and envelope themselves in a silken web, which covers the leaves and the small branches in their neighbourhood ; they remain together until they have attained a considerable amount of growth, and then they separate. They do a great deal of damage to apple-trees. When fully grown the lackeys spin a nearly transparent cocoon, and powder it well with a yellow sulphury looking powder. It is evident, after reading the history of these species, which are allied to each other, and which are all in the family of the Bomhycidce, that there is something more than is usually admitted in the philosophy of the first metamorphosis. Why should the first kind have caterpillars which, on escaping from the t%^, go into a state of lethargy during nine months, and then transform themselves into a lethargic chrysalis } Why should the larvae of the next kind eat and grow big, and then hide up all the winter long, before becoming chrysalides .'' and why should those of the last mentioned species pass in one season from the gor- mandising caterpillar to the chrysalis state t The ordinary idea is that the chrysalis condition is a safe refuge during the winter, when food cannot be obtained; but why should not the first two kinds undergo this metamorphosis at once, and without running all sorts of risks .-• The history of the development of the insects which undergo these perfect metamorphoses certainly receives a light from these considera- tions, and it is evident that the popular idea is by no means the correct one. A bombyx, which collects in great assemblages and has peculiar habits, and often a miserable fate, is called the Proces- sional caterpillar. The moth is rather small, and its grey wings, which are very pale coloured in the female and crossed with THE MRTAiMoRi'iiDSEs OF THE Doiiil'y.x pnhi'ssioih'a ANH i iF Cd/osoiiia syiophaiita. THE BOMBYCINA. II5 three darkish bands, give it a very quiet appearance. It appears in the woods about the months of August and September. The lemales lay their eggs in masses upon the trunks or larger branches of oak trees, and cover them with the hairs from the body. The caterpillars are hatched in the month of May, and are collected in families which contain hundreds of mem- bers. They form an irregular web, in which they remain very quietly during the daytime, but in the evening they crawl upon the foliage and eat voraciously. When they have finished their meal they either return to their old home or make another. One of these nests may cover a considerable part of the trunk of a tree, and it consists of several layers of web, one over the other, but very intimately woven together. Every observer must be struck with the manifest order and routine observed by these caterpillars in their peregrinations. If the nests are examined during the daytime all is quiet within, and the caterpillars are crowded one upon the other, and are almost motionless. As soon, however, as the sun has gone down there is a slight movement, and then a general waking up. A caterpillar leaves the nest, and commences climbing the trunk. It is followed by another, and this one by a third, and then comes a rank of three or four individuals, which is followed by one of many more, and so on. The ranks go on increasing in their numbers in a very regular manner, but the column at last becomes confused. There may be two or three caterpillars instead of one in the second and third ranks, but one larva invariably leads the array in its curious procession. After feasting, the same order is taken up, and the host of caterpillars returns to camp in the same formation. Even if they move from one branch to another this procession is wit- nessed, and yet nothing distinguishes the leader from the others, so that the instinct which admits of these manoeuvres is very remark- able. When the larvae have attained their full growth they gra- dually increase the strength of the walls of their nest with their moulted skins, and then each one makes its cocoon inside and be- comes transformed. In the engraving, which represents a scene in the Bois de Boulogne, near Paris, the processional caterpillars are on the march and are being attacked by a large beetle and its I 2 ii6 TRANSFORAIATIONS OF INSECTS. larva — Calosonia sycophanta. The caterpillars are great pests to the oak trees; and it would appear that their hairs perforate the THE METAMORPHOSES OF THE VAPOURER MOTH {Orgyia antiqiid). human skin, and give much pain and produce inflammation of the face if they are blown against it Even horses and other THE BOMBYCINA, WJ animals suffer from the irritation of the hairs if they get into the eyes or up the nostrils. The pretty caterpillars of the Vapourer moths — Orgyia antiqua — with their tufts of variously-coloured hairs and harlequin look, are very common in the summer time on all sorts of trees and shrubs, for there are many broods of them during the year. The larvae make a cocoon, but as they only have a very small quantity of silk, they mix their long and pretty hairs with it and sometimes unite some leaves together to cover all. The moth flies two or three weeks after the metamorphosis of the caterpillar into the chrysalis. The male has a thin body, and pectinated antennae, and its wings are of a brown fawn colour, with some darkish rays, and a small white spot ; but the female is a brown insect, having very rudimentary and stumpy wings. She moves but with difficulty, for her legs are hardly strong enough for the distended body. Certainly, she is no beauty, yet she has abundance of admirers, and is always at home. In the engraving one of these wingless creatures is to be seen on the tree laying its eggs, and many of the well-known hairy cater- pillars are on the leaves. The pupa of the female is black, and has many tufts of hair upon it, and the perfect insect escapes through the imperfect cocoon very easily. She then commences to lay the eggs upon the silky outside, and she never leaves them. The eggs are greenish at first, and soon become white, with a faint green spot on the top. They are tub-shaped, and may number 200 or more. There is another moth belonging to this group of Bombycina, whose metamorphoses are as curious as those of the kind just mentioned ; indeed, there are two genera of a family called the Psychidcs, the females of which are not only without wings, but have neither legs nor antennae. In fact, the female moth is a helpless o.^^ bag, which never quits the case or covering in which it was bred. It is a curious notion to call these moths by the name of Psyche, but really the males are very pretty. They are small ; their bodies are thin, and covered with long silken hairs ; their wings are almost transparent, for they only have a few grey, brown, and black scales upon them ; and they Il8 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. have pretty feathery antennee. Considering what clumsy looking things some of the moths of the Bombycina group are, and how delicate are the little Psyches, which may be blown almost to pieces by a puff of wind, there may be some excuse for the name, especially as they have a very tiny mouth, and as they live for love, having no other passion or appetite. The larvae live in cases, which they make up of a certain quantity of silk and of pieces of vegetable tissue arranged with great tact and care. Some kinds use pieces of leaves ; others straws cut to a proper shape, or morsels of stick ; others build up their curious house, which always travels with them, with sprigs of moss ; and one in particular constructs some very odd-looking tubes, which, although very rough and funny looking outside, are lined with the softest and finest silk. The Psychidce carry their cases just as snails do their shells ; and one species, which will be alluded to, especially with reference to its maiden offspring, actually mimics shells in the construction of its case. When they wish to move they put out their head and the thoracic segments, so that their scaly legs can hook on to the leaves or twigs. When they want to be quiet they anchor their house by means of a silken thread, and re-enter it completely. It is really very curious to see these little tubes crawling about, and going here and there over the leaves, without being able to distinguish the insect. The species are all in the larva state in the early spring or middle of summer. One of them, which is the commonest of all, may be found on the sloe, elm, and sallow trees, and its case is composed of pieces of stems of grass placed side by side. The scaly legs (the fore legs) of the larvae are well developed, and the membranous legs, which are very small, and furnished with a complete ring of hooks, enable the insect to hold on to its snug little house. When the larvae have attained their full growth, and their time of metamorphosis is at hand, they do not require either to seek a safe spot or to manufacture a cocoon, for their tube is the best shelter they can possibly have. The insect attaches its tube either to the trunk or branch of a tree, or to a wall, and closes one end very carefully. This operation having been satisfactorily completed, it turns round in the tube so as to allow its head to rest near that end of the THE rSYCHIDM. II9 tube which is still open. It then becomes transformed into the chrysalis. In a few weeks' time the moth escapes from its prison if it is a male, but if it is a female she still stops at home, being none the less attractive, however, to her admirers. She lays her eggs inside the old house and dies. No young caterpillars should have a greater respect for their mother than those which are born after a time in the old house where she died, for she built the house, carried it about with her exposed to number- less dangers, repaired it, and was married in it. But these little thoughtless things not only are ungrateful, but unfeeling, for the first thing they do is to set to work to eat up their mother's body, which they perform very completely, for they only leave the hard parts behind. After having done this they quit the old home and wander about the world. This cannibalism is almost THE CHRYSALIS AND THE FEMALE PERFECT INSECT OF Psyche grarninella. but not quite an exceptional proceeding in the Lepidoptcra. In the spring-time and in early summer the caterpillar of Psyche grammella may be seen wandering about over the grasses, brooms, heaths, and sometimes upon walls, and it is very visible, for its tube is often nearly an inch long. It is made up of little pieces of leaves all cut to about the same size and placed one within the other like flounces, and its front part has one or two rows of pieces of wood or of sprigs of plants placed longways upon it. These pieces come from the caterpillar's favourite plants. The caterpillar never has but one tube, which it enlarges from time to time by making a slit in it with its jaws. The margins of the slit open, and a piece made up of silk and vegetable matter is stuffed into it. Every time that the larva enlarges its house it repeats this manoeuvre. The caterpillar is of a pale grey colour, and its head and its three thoracic segments are of a reddish-brown and are marked with black lines and dots. It is no beauty; but what is the use of being dressed up when one lives in the dark ? I20 TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. The engraving shows the tubes of the Psyche with the heads and fore parts of the bodies of the larvae projecting and the male moths flying about. Psyche fusca, which is common in England, covers its case with pieces of leaf and grass, which are put crossways. A closely allied kind, which belongs to the genus Fiimea, has females which have legs and antennae, and it would appear that they emerge from the case after having escaped from the chrysalis condition, and sit on the outside. Very large Lepidoptera of the family of the Psychidce are found in America and in Australia, and one kind has a tube four or five inches in length, which it hangs on to trees with stout silken threads, so that very strong gales of wind produce little effect upon it. The remarkably defective development of the females of these families of the Bombycina is almost equalled by that of the larvae of the Cochliopodidce. These singular insects, of which Mr. Stainton says only two species occur in Europe, are unlike any others in the caterpillar state. In one the larvae are greenish with raised dots and a broad yellow stripe on the back inclining to reddish on the side, and they live on the oak, beech, and poplar trees, and are smooth : they have no legs. In the other, the legs are equally deficient, and the pupae of both kinds are found in a firm cocoon amongst leaves. The perfect insect flies entirely by day, and soon tatters itself There are some interesting moths which, although they have very short antennae and a long abdomen, with some evidences of the presence of a short oviduct, are still classified among the Bombycina. They constitute the family HcpialidcB, and are found in considerable numbers in America, Africa, and Australia, but only rarely in Europe. The caterpillars feed on the roots of many plants, and never come into the light, and they are slim, elongated, and colourless. The largest of the European species is Hepialus hinmdi, commonly called the Ghost, and the wings of the males are snowy white in colour with brownish costae and fringes, whilst the females are decorated with wings of a dull yellow tint, and with brick-red bands. The larva is pale in colour, and has a reddish-brown plate in front on the second segment, and lives Tin-; -MKl'AMdRniDSES .)1. /\m',/u' Xl